Iron Overload and Toxicity

Sujatha Baddam; Richard J. Chen

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V体育平台登录 - Iron Overload and Toxicity

Sujatha Baddam; Richard J. Chen.

Author Information and Affiliations

Authors

Sujatha Baddam¹; Richard J. Chen².

Affiliations

¹ Huntsville Hospital, Huntsville

² Jefferson-Einstein Healthcare Network

Last Update: July 7, 2025.

Continuing Education Activity

Iron overload and toxicity comprise a spectrum of clinical conditions resulting from excessive iron accumulation in the body. Chronic iron overload typically arises from hereditary hemochromatosis or repeated blood transfusions, especially in patients with thalassemia or sickle cell disease. Acute toxicity often results from the ingestion of iron supplements, particularly in pediatric populations. Unregulated iron absorption or parenteral administration bypasses hepcidin-ferroportin regulation, leading to intracellular deposition and the generation of reactive oxygen species. This oxidative stress damages key organs, including the liver, heart, pancreas, and endocrine glands. Clinical manifestations vary with disease duration and severity, ranging from fatigue and arthralgia to life-threatening complications such as cirrhosis, cardiomyopathy, and hepatic failure. Diagnosis relies on clinical suspicion supported by laboratory findings, such as elevated serum ferritin and transferrin saturation, alongside imaging studies VSports最新版本. Depending on acuity, management strategies include chelation therapy, gastrointestinal decontamination, or therapeutic phlebotomy.

Through this educational activity, healthcare professionals gain a comprehensive understanding of iron overload and toxicity, including underlying etiologies, risk factors, pathophysiologic mechanisms, and clinical presentations. Participants review current evidence-based diagnostic tools and therapeutic interventions tailored to acute and chronic presentations. Emphasis is placed on early recognition and timely intervention to mitigate long-term organ damage. Collaborative care within interprofessional teams—encompassing physicians, nurses, pharmacists, and dietitians—optimizes treatment planning and patient monitoring V体育平台登录. This coordinated approach enhances clinical outcomes by integrating diverse expertise, improving adherence to therapeutic regimens, and supporting patient-centered decision-making.

Objectives: Assess patients for clinical features, predisposing conditions, and relevant diagnostic markers indicative of iron overload or acute iron toxicity. Implement appropriate evidence-based treatment strategies, including chelation therapy and phlebotomy, for patients with iron overload or toxicity VSports注册入口. Evaluate patients for possible complications and long-term outcomes resulting from delayed or insufficient treatment of iron accumulation. Collaborate with the interprofessional healthcare team to ensure comprehensive diagnosis, management, and follow-up of patients with suspected or confirmed iron-related disorders. Access free multiple choice questions on this topic. .

Introduction

Iron is an essential trace element involved in oxygen transport, mitochondrial energy production, deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis, and host immune defense. [1] Although physiologically necessary, excessive iron, whether acute or chronic, induces tissue injury and systemic toxicity, collectively called iron overload and toxicity. Iron overload denotes a chronic pathological state characterized by iron accumulation in parenchymal tissues, typically resulting from genetic mutations such as hereditary hemochromatosis or secondary causes that include repeated transfusions, chronic hemolysis, and excessive dietary intake. Excess iron deposits in the liver, heart, and endocrine organs, where it promotes the generation of reactive oxygen species, resulting in oxidative stress, cellular damage, and progressive organ dysfunction. [2] V体育官网入口.

Iron toxicity refers primarily to acute ingestion of pharmacologic or supplemental iron in toxic quantities. Pediatric patients frequently experience unintentional overdose following access to iron-containing multivitamins or prenatal supplements, particularly in children younger than 6 years, among whom iron ingestion is a leading cause of fatal poisoning. In adults, severe toxicity often follows intentional overdose. [3][4] Additionally, gradual toxic accumulation can occur in patients receiving chronic transfusions for thalassemia, sickle cell disease, or hematologic malignancies. [5] Recognition of the distinct pathophysiologic mechanisms and clinical implications of iron overload and toxicity is essential for timely diagnosis, effective intervention, and reduction of iron-related morbidity and mortality VSports在线直播.

Etiology

Primary iron overload is most often inherited. Hereditary hemochromatosis is the leading cause of iron overload disease. C282Y and H63D, mutations of the homeostatic iron regulator (also hereditary hemochromatosis or High Fe, HFE) gene, were identified in 1996 as causative in primary iron overload. The C282Y mutation, the most common, encodes the HFE protein, which regulates hepcidin expression. Less frequent genetic causes HAMP, HJV, TFR2, and SLC40A1 mutations, collectively called "non-HFE hemochromatosis."[6]

The previous classification divided hemochromatosis into 4 types. Type 1, the classic HFE-related form, results from C282Y or H63D mutations. Type 2A results from HAMP mutation. Type 2B arises from HJV mutation. Type 3 stems from TFR2 mutation. Type 4 results from SLC40A1 mutation.[7] A more recent system categorizes hemochromatosis into HFE-related, non-HFE-related, and digenic forms. HFE-related hemochromatosis includes type 1 and cases involving heterozygosity for C282Y combined with other rare HFE variants. Non-HFE-related hemochromatosis includes types 2, 3, and 4. Digenic inheritance refers to double heterozygosity or combinations of homozygous and heterozygous mutations across 2 different genes involving either HFE or non-HFE loci.[8][9]

Secondary iron overload results from exogenous iron exposure or dysregulated iron metabolism. The most common cause is repeated transfusion therapy for chronic hematologic disorders, including thalassemia major or intermedia, myelodysplastic syndromes, aplastic anemia, congenital dyserythropoietic anemia, Diamond-Blackfan anemia, and inherited bone marrow failure syndromes. Additional etiologies include sideroblastic anemia (inherited or acquired), chronic hemolysis, repeated hemin infusions for acute intermittent porphyria, and excessive parenteral or dietary iron intake. A notable dietary form, previously referred to as “African iron overload,” has been associated with the consumption of home-brewed beer in sub-Saharan Africa. Rare causes include gestational alloimmune liver disease and chronic liver disorders such as alcohol-associated liver disease, chronic hepatitis, and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease, all of which may promote hepatic iron deposition and systemic overload.[10][11]

Acute iron toxicity typically follows ingestion of excessive elemental iron and is a leading cause of pediatric poisoning. Toxicity is dose-dependent. Ingestion below 20 mg/kg is generally nontoxic. Quantities of 20 to 60 mg/kg may produce moderate symptoms. Doses exceeding 60 mg/kg are associated with severe, potentially fatal toxicity. Elemental iron content varies by formulation. A 325-mg ferrous sulfate tablet contains approximately 65 mg (20%) elemental iron. A 300-mg ferrous gluconate tablet contains 36 mg (12%). A 100-mg ferrous fumarate tablet contains 33 mg (33%). Prenatal vitamins contain 60 to 90 mg per tablet, whereas children’s multivitamins typically contain 5 to 19 mg. Accidental ingestion most often affects children younger than 6 years, while intentional overdose is more common among adults in the context of suicide attempts.

Epidemiology

Iron Overload Epidemiology

An estimated 16 million individuals in the United States (US) have some iron overload, either inherited or acquired. Hereditary hemochromatosis occurs most frequently in individuals of European ancestry, particularly non-Hispanic White individuals. Results from a study reported a C282Y homozygosity rate of 0.4% and heterozygosity of 9.2% in European countries, with similar rates of 0.5% and 9%, respectively, in North America.[12]

Approximately 1 in every 200 White individuals in the US is affected by iron overload, and 10% to 14% are carriers of relevant genetic mutations.[13] The Hemochromatosis and Iron Overload Screening (HEIRS) study found a homozygous C282Y mutation prevalence of 0.44% in non-Hispanic White individuals, 0.11% in Native and Indigenous Americans, and 0.027% in Hispanic populations. A separate population-based study in Ireland reported a higher prevalence, with 1.2% homozygosity for the C282Y mutation.[14] Recent data also indicate that 10% to 28.6% of patients with chronic kidney disease on peritoneal dialysis develop hepatic iron overload, highlighting the broader relevance of secondary iron accumulation beyond transfusion-dependent conditions.[15]

Iron Toxicity Epidemiology

Although less common than chronic overload, acute iron toxicity remains a significant public health concern, particularly in young children. The 2015 Annual Report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers National Poison Data System revealed 4072 single iron or iron salts exposures. Of these cases, 3211 resulted from unintentional ingestion, and 2036 occurred in children aged 5 years or younger. A total of 1161 cases required medical treatment, and 1 fatality was reported.[16]

Iron toxicity continues to account for the majority of fatal pediatric poisonings involving vitamins and supplements in the US. Among adults, acute toxicity is rare and typically associated with intentional ingestion in suicide attempts. Recent emergency department data show that patients presenting with acute iron toxicity are predominantly female (73.8%), with a median age of 32 years.[17]

Pathophysiology

Iron homeostasis in humans is primarily maintained by regulating intestinal iron absorption. Normal plasma iron concentrations range from 12 to 25 μmol/L and are sustained through a balance between dietary iron absorbed by enterocytes and iron recycled from senescent erythrocytes by macrophages. Ferroportin, the only known cellular iron exporter, facilitates iron efflux from enterocytes and macrophages into plasma. Hepcidin, a liver-derived peptide hormone, tightly regulates ferroportin activity. Increased hepcidin concentrations induce ferroportin internalization and degradation, thereby decreasing plasma iron levels. In contrast, suppressed hepcidin expression permits sustained ferroportin activity and increases plasma iron concentrations.[18]

Once in circulation, iron is oxidized by ceruloplasmin and bound to transferrin to form holotransferrin, which delivers iron to target tissues. Circulating holotransferrin concentrations contribute to feedback regulation of hepcidin synthesis.[19] The HFE protein regulates hepcidin production. When unbound to transferrin receptor 1 (TFR1), HFE facilitates signaling pathways that promote hepcidin synthesis. Mutations in genes such as HFE (C282Y, H63D), HJV, HAMP, and TFR2 disrupt hepcidin production or its upstream regulation, resulting in unrestrained ferroportin activity and elevated serum iron concentrations.[20]

As transferrin saturation increases, excess circulating iron appears as non-transferrin-bound iron (NTBI). NTBI catalyzes redox cycling through the Fenton and Haber-Weiss reactions, generating reactive oxygen species, including hydroxyl radicals. These species induce lipid peroxidation, protein denaturation, and DNA damage, culminating in oxidative stress, apoptosis, and progressive tissue injury.[21] Iron overload leads to cumulative damage in the liver, heart, pancreas, and endocrine organs. Clinical complications include cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma, cardiomyopathy, diabetes mellitus (“bronze diabetes”), hypothyroidism, hypogonadism, and accelerated neurodegenerative processes, including Alzheimer disease.[22]

Recent advances in iron metabolism have further defined the central regulatory role of hepcidin in systemic iron balance and its dysregulation in both iron overload and iron deficiency disorders.[23] Increasing evidence has linked iron accumulation to hepatic and endocrine dysfunction and neurodegenerative diseases, highlighting the systemic consequences of iron dysregulation. Identifying ferroptosis—a distinct, iron-dependent form of regulated cell death—has expanded the current understanding of iron-mediated cytotoxicity.[24][25] Ferritinophagy, the autophagic degradation of ferritin, has also been recognized as a critical mechanism in intracellular iron homeostasis and oxidative stress responses. These mechanistic insights have prompted the development of targeted therapies, including agents that modulate the hepcidin-ferroportin axis and novel iron chelators designed to mitigate iron-induced tissue damage.[26]

In contrast, acute iron toxicity involves both corrosive and cellular injury. The corrosive phase results from chemical damage to the gastrointestinal mucosa by unbound iron, producing nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and gastrointestinal bleeding. Severe mucosal injury may progress to hematemesis, gastrointestinal perforation, or peritonitis caused by hemorrhagic necrosis. Free iron induces cellular toxicity following systemic absorption, particularly in hepatocytes, cardiomyocytes, and neurons. Intracellular iron accumulates in mitochondria, disrupts oxidative phosphorylation, promotes lipid peroxidation, generates reactive oxygen species, and triggers cell death.[27] Cellular injury contributes to developing metabolic acidosis, a common feature in moderate-to-severe cases of iron poisoning.

"VSports在线直播" Histopathology

In iron overload, histopathological examination reveals progressive iron deposition in parenchymal tissues. The liver is the most commonly affected organ in hereditary and transfusional forms. A liver biopsy is a diagnostic option when genetic testing is inconclusive or when patients have suspected cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatic tissue stained with Prussian blue (Perls stain) demonstrates iron accumulation, particularly in periportal hepatocytes. Advanced disease may show architectural distortion, bridging fibrosis, and cirrhosis. The hepatic iron index (HII), calculated from biopsy specimens, has historically been used to quantify liver iron content and assess disease severity.[28]

Iron deposition in pancreatic islet β-cells contributes to endocrine dysfunction, particularly diabetes mellitus. Other organs that may also be affected include the myocardium, pituitary gland, adrenal glands, and synovial joints. In acute iron toxicity, histopathological injury is most pronounced in the gastrointestinal tract and liver. Common gastric and intestinal findings include iron encrustations, mucosal necrosis, and submucosal fibrin thrombi. In the liver, acute toxicity may cause selective destruction of hepatocytes with relative preservation of bile ducts, often progressing to massive hepatic necrosis.[29] Iron deposits localize primarily in periportal hepatocytes, as in chronic overload, but with more extensive hepatocyte loss.[30]

Iron may also be identified within vascular structures and necrotic foci of the intestinal wall due to corrosive injury and infarction. Extrahepatic findings may include myocardial degeneration, splenic lymphoid atrophy, and pancreatic tissue loss. Histologic changes in the kidneys and brain may reflect secondary injury from shock, dehydration, or hemorrhage rather than direct iron toxicity. Fulminant hepatic failure is a recognized cause of death in severe overdose.

Toxicokinetics

Iron is essential for critical cellular functions, including oxygen transport, DNA synthesis, and energy metabolism. However, iron becomes toxic in excess. The toxicokinetics of iron differs substantially between acute poisoning and chronic overload. Chronic iron overload develops gradually, most often due to hereditary hemochromatosis or repeated blood transfusions for conditions such as thalassemia or myelodysplastic syndromes. Toxicokinetics in chronic overload reflect sustained intestinal absorption or parenteral iron loading that exceeds the body's regulatory capacity.

Normal homeostatic mechanisms become overwhelmed, including absorption control, macrophage-mediated recycling, and intracellular storage in ferritin and hemosiderin. As transferrin saturation increases, NTBI appears in circulation, and iron accumulates progressively in the liver, heart, pancreas, and endocrine organs. Although the accumulation occurs slowly, chronic overload causes organ injury through oxidative mechanisms similar to those observed in acute toxicity, often accompanied by tissue-specific adaptive responses.[31][32]

In acute iron toxicity, serum iron concentrations typically peak within 2 to 6 hours following ingestion, although delayed peaks may occur with enteric-coated or sustained-release preparations, necessitating serial monitoring.[33] Under physiologic conditions, approximately 10% of ingested iron is absorbed and bound to transferrin. Normal serum iron concentrations range from 50 to 150 mcg/dL, with a total iron-binding capacity of 300 to 400 mcg/dL. In overdose, transferrin becomes saturated, leading to the emergence of NTBI. This unbound, redox-active iron catalyzes free radical formation, induces lipid peroxidation, and disrupts cellular membranes. Intracellular ferrous iron accumulation impairs mitochondrial function and promotes rapid hepatocyte injury, contributing to systemic oxidative stress and multiorgan failure.[34]

History and Physical

Patients with iron overload often remain asymptomatic for years. Diagnosis of HFE-related hereditary hemochromatosis typically occurs after age 30, whereas non-HFE-related forms tend to present earlier, commonly between ages 20 and 30 years.[35] As many as 75% of affected individuals do not exhibit symptoms until iron accumulation results in organ dysfunction. When symptoms emerge, they reflect damage in iron-laden tissues. Common findings include chronic fatigue, arthralgia, abdominal discomfort, hepatomegaly, arrhythmias, hypogonadism, reduced libido, hyperglycemia, skin hyperpigmentation, and depressed mood.[36] Symptomatic disease occurs more frequently in men, attributed in part to menstrual iron loss in premenopausal women.

Acute iron toxicity follows a characteristic but variable clinical course, classically divided into 5 stages. Stage 1 (0.5–6 hours) involves initial manifestations and consists of gastrointestinal symptoms such as abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, hematemesis, and hematochezia. Stage 2 (6–24 hours) is a transient asymptomatic period that may follow despite continued systemic absorption of toxic iron concentrations.

Stage 3 (6–72 hours) includes subsequent deterioration marked by recurrence of gastrointestinal symptoms and progression to shock, metabolic acidosis, hepatocellular injury, coagulopathy, cardiac dysfunction, and renal failure. Stage 4 (12–96 hours) is characterized by progressive hepatic failure, indicated by rising aminotransferase levels and worsening encephalopathy. Stage 5 (2–8 weeks) involves late complications such as gastric outlet obstruction and bowel strictures that may develop due to mucosal scarring. Not all patients experience the full progression of symptoms. Clinical evaluation should be guided by observed signs rather than the time elapsed since ingestion.

V体育ios版 - Evaluation

The evaluation of iron overload begins with low-cost, noninvasive laboratory testing. Serum iron levels are not reliable for chronic overload diagnosis. However, serum ferritin and transferrin saturation are widely used. Ferritin levels greater than 300 ng/mL in men and greater than 150 to 200 ng/mL in menstruating women raise suspicion of iron overload. However, ferritin is an acute-phase reactant and may be falsely elevated in inflammatory, infectious, or hepatic conditions, limiting its accuracy in reflecting the total body iron burden.[37]

Transferrin saturation greater than 45% (fasting) strengthens diagnostic confidence, especially with elevated ferritin. Both are typically elevated in hereditary hemochromatosis. Liver iron concentration is the best predictor of total body iron, but liver biopsy carries risks and is now reserved for select cases. Noninvasive imaging modalities are increasingly preferred for assessing organ-specific iron burden, particularly superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) and liver iron concentration quantification using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). MRI findings showing high liver iron but minimal splenic iron suggest hepcidin deficiency, as seen in HFE mutations.[38]

HFE gene testing is recommended for patients with confirmed biochemical iron overload. Genotypes such as C282Y/C282Y, H63D/H63D, and compound heterozygotes (C282Y/H63D) confer the highest risk of clinical disease expression.[39][40] When HFE testing is negative but clinical suspicion remains high, additional genetic analysis for non-HFE mutations, including TFR2, HAMP, and HJV, may be pursued. Although specialized and not widely accessible, these tests help clarify atypical presentations. Emerging biomarkers such as ferritin-bound iron and NTBI are under investigation to improve diagnostic precision.[41]

Recent studies' results have associated excessive intravenous iron administration with increased cardiovascular risk, particularly in patients with chronic kidney disease undergoing dialysis. A comprehensive approach integrating clinical assessment, biochemical markers, and imaging now constitutes best practice in evaluating iron status.[42] Evaluating acute iron toxicity requires a combination of clinical history, physical examination, and serial laboratory testing. The most critical laboratory measurement is the serum iron concentration, ideally obtained 4 to 6 hours after ingestion. Delayed absorption may occur in sustained-release or enteric-coated formulations, warranting repeat testing at 6 to 8 hours.

Serum iron concentrations below 350 mcg/dL suggest mild risk. Levels between 350 and 500 mcg/dL indicate moderate toxicity, while concentrations greater than 500 mcg/dL are associated with severe systemic toxicity. Since the liver rapidly sequesters iron, delayed testing may underestimate the true extent of exposure. Additional laboratory evaluation should include complete blood count, serum electrolytes, glucose, renal and hepatic function tests, and coagulation profile.

Imaging may support diagnosis in selected cases. Plain abdominal radiographs may occasionally reveal radiopaque iron tablets within 2 to 6 hours after ingestion. However, the absence of radiopacities does not exclude significant ingestion, and the severity of poisoning does not correlate with the number or appearance of visible tablets.[43]

Treatment / Management

Iron Overload Management

The cornerstone of treatment for chronic iron overload is reduction therapy, most commonly achieved through therapeutic phlebotomy. In patients with stable hemoglobin levels, phlebotomy is typically performed every 1 to 2 weeks until serum ferritin is lowered to approximately 50 µg/L. Maintenance phlebotomy is scheduled every 2 to 3 months, with adjustments based on ferritin trends. Persistent ferritin concentrations above 1000 ng/mL have been linked to increased risk of hepatic fibrosis and reduced life expectancy.[44][45] Patients with mild ferritin elevations may be advised to donate blood regularly, although donation at intervals shorter than 8 weeks generally requires physician approval.

Iron chelation therapy provides an effective alternative for patients who cannot undergo phlebotomy due to anemia or low hemoglobin levels. Deferoxamine, administered subcutaneously over 8 to 12 hours on multiple days per week, is commonly used in chronic overload. Intravenous administration is reserved for acute toxicity. Adverse effects include hypotension, dizziness, rash, neurotoxicity, and increased risk of Yersinia sepsis or acute respiratory distress syndrome.[46] Oral chelators like deferasirox and deferiprone offer effective management with greater convenience and fewer burdens than deferoxamine.[47][48]

Adjunctive and investigational strategies include proton pump inhibitors such as pantoprazole, which may reduce iron absorption and lessen phlebotomy requirements, particularly in patients with HFE C282Y mutations.[49] Hepcidin-based therapies aim to regulate iron homeostasis by modulating the hepcidin and ferroportin pathways.[50] Newer agents and combination therapies are under investigation to enhance iron clearance while minimizing toxicity.[51] Patient education should emphasize strict avoidance of iron supplements, iron-containing multivitamins, and vitamin C, which can increase iron absorption and exacerbate systemic overload.

Management of Acute Iron Toxicity

Managing acute iron poisoning depends on clinical severity, time since ingestion, and serum iron concentration. Asymptomatic individuals evaluated 4 to 6 hours after ingestion, or those with clearly subtoxic exposures, may be cared for by observation alone. Patients who present with mild gastrointestinal symptoms and stable vital signs during the early latent period may also be observed with supportive care.

Systemic toxicity, persistent gastrointestinal symptoms, or hemodynamic instability require more intensive treatment, often including admission to an intensive care unit. Key interventions include intravenous crystalloid resuscitation to correct hypovolemia and support organ perfusion. Chelation with deferoxamine is indicated for patients with serum iron concentrations greater than 500 mcg/dL, metabolic acidosis, shock, or evidence of organ dysfunction. Deferoxamine is administered as a continuous intravenous infusion at 15 mg/kg/hour, with a maximum of 35 mg/kg/hour. The maximum daily dose is 6 g. Therapy normally continues for 24 hours, depending on the clinical course. Toxicology consultation is strongly recommended.[52]

Whole-bowel irrigation using polyethylene glycol via nasogastric tube, at a rate of 1.5 to 2 L/hour in adults, facilitates the removal of unabsorbed tablets. Gastric lavage may be considered when imaging reveals large numbers of retained tablets and is performed early, although potential risks often outweigh benefits. Coagulopathy should be addressed with vitamin K and fresh frozen plasma. Activated charcoal does not bind iron and should not be used.

Disposition

Hospital admission is recommended for patients with persistent gastrointestinal symptoms, clinical dehydration, or the need for deferoxamine therapy. Intensive care unit admission is indicated for individuals presenting with shock, coma, metabolic acidosis, or serum iron concentrations exceeding 1000 mcg/dL. Psychiatric evaluation is essential in all cases of intentional overdose.

Patients who remain asymptomatic after 6 to 12 hours of observation, have normal laboratory results, and demonstrate serum iron levels below 350 mcg/dL may be considered for safe discharge. In rare or severe cases, surgical intervention for bezoar removal or hemodialysis may be required. However, the use of hemodialysis remains controversial and is generally reserved for select scenarios.[53]

Differential Diagnosis

Iron overload may result from secondary causes such as multiple blood transfusions in conditions like thalassemia or sickle cell disease, excessive intake of dietary or supplemental iron, alcohol-associated liver disease, ineffective erythropoiesis with marrow hyperplasia as seen in myelodysplastic syndromes, chronic anemias that promote increased iron absorption, and porphyria cutanea tarda. Genetic causes include hereditary hemochromatosis due to HFE mutations such as C282Y and H63D, and non-HFE forms involving mutations in TFR2, HJV, HAMP, and SLC40A1. Neuroferritinopathy is a rare neurologic disorder associated with iron overload in the central nervous system.

Several conditions can mimic acute iron toxicity. Sepsis may present with overlapping features such as shock and metabolic acidosis. Acetaminophen toxicity may cause hepatic injury and gastrointestinal symptoms similar to those seen in iron poisoning. Heavy metal poisoning from substances such as lead or arsenic, theophylline overdose, and gastrointestinal bleeding from unrelated etiologies may also resemble iron toxicity. Other toxic ingestions that can produce an anion gap metabolic acidosis include salicylates, methanol, ethylene glycol, cyanide, and certain mushrooms such as Amanita species.

Staging

A liver biopsy is indicated when hemochromatosis progresses to liver cirrhosis to assess the extent of hepatic involvement. A biopsy is particularly important when liver transplantation is under consideration.

Prognosis

The prognosis for iron overload is highly favorable when the condition is diagnosed early and iron levels are effectively reduced. Patients who maintain serum ferritin concentrations within the target range often experience normal life expectancy and minimal risk of liver damage.[54] Ferritin levels between 20 and 50 µg/L are optimal and associated with the lowest incidence of hepatic fibrosis and other iron-related complications.

In contrast, patients who are untreated or inadequately treated have reduced survival and are at greater risk for developing liver cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma, pancreatic fibrosis, and diabetes mellitus. Ferritin concentration at diagnosis serves as a strong prognostic indicator. A ferritin level above 2000 µg/L is associated with significantly higher mortality than levels below 1000 µg/L.[55] Among C282Y homozygotes, serum ferritin consistently above 1000 µg/L correlates with an increased risk of cirrhosis and death.[56]

In the transplant setting, elevated pretransplant ferritin levels greater than 500 ng/mL are associated with increased mortality and higher rates of posttransplant complications among hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Iron chelation therapy is recommended before transplantation to reduce these patients' total body iron burden.[57] Liver transplantation may be necessary for individuals with advanced hepatic injury resulting from inadequately treated hemochromatosis. Transplantation effectively resolves the underlying defect, as the donor liver possesses a normal wild-type HFE genotype and restores appropriate hepcidin synthesis.[58] Similarly, heart transplantation may be beneficial in patients with severe cardiomyopathy attributable to HFE-associated iron overload.[59]

Results from recent studies highlight the central role of hepcidin dysregulation in the pathogenesis and prognosis of hereditary hemochromatosis. Inadequate hepcidin production promotes iron accumulation and organ injury, and therapies targeting this regulatory pathway may improve long-term outcomes.[60] The prognosis of acute iron toxicity largely depends on the amount of elemental iron ingested, the timing of medical intervention, and the extent of systemic involvement. Patients with mild to moderate toxicity who receive prompt supportive care and chelation with agents such as deferoxamine typically recover without lasting effects. In contrast, severe toxicity carries a high risk of metabolic acidosis, liver failure, and multiorgan dysfunction.

Complications

Iron overload and toxicity may result in serious systemic complications, particularly when unrecognized or inadequately treated. Chronic iron overload, as seen in hereditary hemochromatosis and transfusion-dependent anemias such as thalassemia, leads to progressive iron deposition in vital organs. Hepatic complications range from hepatomegaly and fibrosis to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Cardiac involvement may result in restrictive cardiomyopathy and heart failure, while endocrine dysfunction includes diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism, and hypogonadism.

Increased susceptibility to infections and impaired immune function have also been reported.[61] Acute iron toxicity, most often due to intentional or accidental ingestion, causes both local gastrointestinal injury and systemic toxicity. Potential complications include liver necrosis, cardiogenic shock, coagulopathy, coma, seizures, anemia, acute respiratory distress syndrome, esophagitis, gastric perforation, and intestinal stricture formation.

Consultations

Consultations for Iron Overload Cases

Specialist consultation is essential for the comprehensive management of iron overload. Gastroenterology and hepatology input guides evaluating and treating hepatic complications, including steatosis, fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Cardiology consultation is indicated to assess for iron-related cardiomyopathy, arrhythmias, or heart failure. Endocrinology involvement helps address complications such as diabetes mellitus, hypogonadism, hypothyroidism, and adrenal insufficiency due to iron deposition in endocrine tissues.

Genetic counseling supports diagnosis and facilitates family screening in hereditary hemochromatosis and other inherited iron-loading disorders. Hematology consultation is appropriate in transfusional iron overload and in patients with underlying hematologic conditions such as thalassemia or myelodysplastic syndromes. Interprofessional collaboration enables individualized care and improves clinical outcomes by addressing systemic involvement and underlying etiology.

Consultations for Managing Iron Toxicity

To manage systemic complications and guide critical interventions, timely specialist consultation is essential in acute iron toxicity. Medical toxicologists provide early guidance on chelation therapy, risk assessment, and interpretation of serum iron concentrations, particularly in moderate-to-severe cases. Critical care specialists are involved in managing patients with shock, multiorgan dysfunction, or a need for intensive monitoring. Gastroenterologists address complications such as gastrointestinal bleeding, ulceration, or obstruction related to mucosal injury or bezoar formation.

Nephrologists may be consulted when renal impairment is present or when hemodialysis is considered for refractory systemic toxicity. Psychiatric evaluation is necessary for patients with intentional overdose, especially in the context of suicide attempts or self-injurious behavior. Surgical consultation may be required for intestinal perforation or bezoars that do not respond to conservative management. Prompt, coordinated interprofessional consultation improves clinical outcomes by enabling rapid diagnosis, targeted therapy, and comprehensive supportive care.

Deterrence and Patient Education

Iron Overload Prevention

Prevention of iron overload centers on identifying and reducing risk factors in susceptible individuals. Routine screening of high-risk populations, including those with a family history of hereditary hemochromatosis or preexisting conditions requiring chronic transfusions, such as thalassemia or myelodysplastic syndromes, enables early detection and intervention. Genetic testing for HFE mutations and serial monitoring of serum ferritin and transferrin saturation form the foundation of preventive care.

Patient education is essential. Individuals should be counseled to avoid unnecessary iron supplements and iron-containing multivitamins, especially when not clinically indicated. Advising against concurrent high-dose vitamin C intake is also important, as this nutrient can enhance dietary iron absorption and contribute to overload. Regular blood donation may provide therapeutic benefits in mildly elevated iron states while preventing further accumulation. Preventive strategies should include careful use of iron therapy and transfusions in at-risk populations. Interprofessional coordination and patient-centered education reduce the likelihood of progressive organ damage and support long-term health outcomes.

Strategies to Reduce Pediatric and Adult Iron Toxicity

Prevention of acute iron toxicity focuses on public education, medication safety, and secure storage. Most pediatric cases result from accidental ingestion, underscoring the need to counsel parents and caregivers on storing iron-containing medications, such as prenatal vitamins and iron supplements, in child-resistant containers and out of children's reach. Patient education should emphasize the risks of the unsupervised use of over-the-counter iron supplements, particularly in individuals without confirmed iron deficiency.

Adherence to prescribed dosing, avoidance of medication sharing, and prompt recognition of early symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, or abdominal pain are critical to preventing severe toxicity. Individuals experiencing early signs should seek immediate medical attention. Clinicians should evaluate psychiatric history to assess the risk of intentional overdose and prescribe iron preparations in appropriate quantities. Educating patients and families remains essential for reducing the incidence of iron poisoning, especially in high-risk and vulnerable groups.

Pearls and Other Issues

Understanding key clinical insights into iron overload and toxicity can improve outcomes and prevent life-threatening complications. Early diagnosis is essential, as both conditions may lead to irreversible organ damage if not promptly recognized and managed. Routine screening in high-risk individuals, such as C282Y homozygotes and transfusion-dependent individuals, plays a crucial role in preventing long-term sequelae.

Patients with iron overload are typically cared for in the outpatient setting with therapeutic phlebotomy or oral iron chelators. Hospitalization is rarely necessary unless serious complications, such as liver failure, develop. In contrast, acute iron toxicity requires careful triage. Asymptomatic individuals with low-risk exposures may be safely observed for 6 to 12 hours, while those with serum iron concentrations above 500 to 1000 µg/dL or evidence of metabolic acidosis, hemodynamic compromise, or organ dysfunction require intensive care.

Several diagnostic pitfalls may hinder accurate assessment. Ferritin levels may be misleading in iron overload due to their elevation in inflammatory conditions. In iron toxicity, serum iron drawn too early may underestimate severity, as peak levels typically occur 4 to 6 hours after ingestion. Delayed symptom onset in both settings can mask clinical deterioration, underscoring the need for ongoing monitoring.

Prevention strategies include avoiding unnecessary iron supplementation in individuals without confirmed deficiency and storing iron-containing products securely to prevent pediatric access. In hereditary hemochromatosis, family screening and genetic counseling can identify at-risk relatives and reduce morbidity through early intervention. Recent advances have introduced new therapies targeting the hepcidin–ferroportin axis, offering promise in treating iron overload syndromes. Diagnostic precision is also improving with the adoption of noninvasive imaging, such as MRI-based liver iron quantification and the investigation of novel biomarkers. Regular phlebotomy in hereditary hemochromatosis reduces total body iron and, when initiated early, has been shown to normalize life expectancy. Effective iron reduction halts disease progression and mitigates the need for more invasive interventions.

Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes (V体育平台登录)

The management of both iron overload and toxicity requires a coordinated interprofessional strategy to ensure patient safety, improve outcomes, and enhance team performance. Results from a long-term study of patients with hemochromatosis demonstrated that overall survival is strongly affected by the presence of liver cirrhosis. In individuals without cirrhosis, survival closely matches that of the general population, emphasizing the importance of early detection and timely intervention to prevent irreversible organ injury.[62]

Clinicians, including internists, hematologists, and toxicologists, are responsible for early recognition, risk assessment, diagnostic evaluation, and developing evidence-based treatment strategies. Iron overload includes distinguishing between hereditary and secondary causes and initiating phlebotomy or chelation as appropriate. Rapid clinical evaluation and timely chelation therapy administration are essential in acute iron toxicity cases. Nurse practitioners and physician assistants contribute to long-term care by synthesizing clinical data, patient history, and social factors into individualized management plans. These professionals support treatment adherence, monitor therapeutic progress, and coordinate escalation of care when necessary.

Nurses are central to patient education, monitoring for adverse events such as chelation-related toxicity, and implementing supportive interventions, including intravenous fluid administration or whole-bowel irrigation during acute toxicity. Education and behavioral support provided by nurses facilitate treatment adherence. Pharmacists contribute by evaluating and managing iron chelation therapies, ensuring appropriate dosing, identifying potential drug interactions, and counseling patients on adherence and adverse events. Pharmacists also assist with deferoxamine preparation and compatibility assessments in acute care settings.

Dietitians advise on iron intake, vitamin C moderation, and dietary adjustments to regulate iron absorption, particularly in patients susceptible to overload. Genetic counselors contribute to hereditary hemochromatosis management by facilitating family screening, supporting patient comprehension, and guiding informed decisions. Care coordination relies on consistent interprofessional communication. Case conferences, shared medical records, and structured handoffs align treatment goals and reduce the risk of errors. Defining responsibilities and drawing on each team member’s expertise improve clinical decision-making and enhance care delivery. This collaborative model enables timely recognition, individualized management, and sustained follow-up, all of which are essential for improving survival, preventing complications, and achieving patient-centered outcomes in chronic and acute iron-related disorders.

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: Disclosure: Sujatha Baddam declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.
: Disclosure: Richard Chen declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal.

Bookshelf ID: NBK526131PMID: 30252387

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Baddam S, Chen RJ. Iron Overload and Toxicity. [Updated 2025 Jul 7]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan-.

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